What is a Noun?

Definition

Noun Gender

Noun Plural

posessive Nouns

Proper & Common Noun

concrete & Abstract Noun

countable & uncountable

Yepp,this word always we find out in the sentence in every language,in Indonesia its means "kata benda".In English A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

The italics words in the following sentences are all nouns:

1. Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
2. Portia White was an opera singer.
3. The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
4. According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.
5. Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

*Noun Gender

Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

1. David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
2. Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
3. The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"

*Noun Plurals

Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:

• When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
• Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
• As they walked through the silent house, they were startled by an unexpected echo.
• I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that return.
• He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
  Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:

1. The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
   There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
2. Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
   The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.
3. The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.

Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.^^"

*Possessive Nouns

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe (') and the letter "s."

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe (') and "s," as in the following sentences:

1. The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
2. The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
3. The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
4. The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s."by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe (') and "s." as in the following examples:

1. The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
   The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
2. The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
   The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
3. Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
   Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s." by adding an apostrophe (') and a "s," as in the following examples:

• The children'smittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
• The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
• Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.
• The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as the women'steam is finished.
• The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s." by adding an apostrophe ('):

1. The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
2. The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
3. My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
4. The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
5. Religion is usually the subject of the roommates'many late night debates.

Using Possessive Nouns

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:

The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

*Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face"and together with the article "the", they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.

The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

*In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking," "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

*In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.

*In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels'nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."

Types Of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "Indonesia" or "Baturaja," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

*Proper Nouns and common Noun

Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are bolded:

• The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
• Many people dread Monday mornings.
• Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
• Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
• Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are italic:

1. According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
2. All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
   I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
3. The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
4. Many child-care workers are underpaid.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:

1. The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.
2. The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.
3. Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
4. The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.

*Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

1. The judge handed the files to the clerk.
2. Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
3. The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
4. As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
5. The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

1. Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
2. Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
3. Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
4. Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

*Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:

• We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
• Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
• Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
• The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
• Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:

Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.

oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.

You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.

The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.

Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."

The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.

gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collective noun "flock" takes the singular verb "spends."

The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is dining."

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.

Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled."

source:u ottawa

Meaning Kiss Around the world

Kissing Your way Around The World

Hello sharelikers,
I had learned about the CCU lecturer books,its about cross culture Understanding,You know,Thats mean we learn about the other cultures from their language.And that make me interest is about KISS,why?haha maybe you only know about the meaning of kisses is a couple that loves each others.But its only if we dont know that facts!.after I read the CCU book,I knew that meaning of kisses not only loves,but its depends on where in the world you are (or were).Okay I will share it just for you :D

As you know,A kiss means "I love you" in many countries-but not everywhere.But, European explorer found plenty of places where People had never even heard of kissing.The Ainu people of japan liked to bite their lovers cheeks.Eskimos, Polynesians and Malaysians rub noses instead of kissing.In several languages the word for "kiss" means "smell"

kisses are also good for saying Hello.Do you kiss relatives on the cheek when you visit them? if you living in europe or south America,you see many more of these greeting kisses.Some men Kiss each other on the cheeks at business meeting.Its like the other form of shaking hands.

If you go traveling In the other country,you will get confusing if you dont know the rules for greeting one another.Many european men and women say hello with two kisses,one each cheek.But three kisses are polite in Belgium,and young people in Paris,France often prefer four.You must start with the right cheek,starting with left would be as awkward as sticking out your left hand for handshake.

Kiss not only on the lips,

• Kiss on the hand thats means I adore you.
• Kiss on the cheek thats means I just want to be friends.
• Kiss on the neck thats means I want you.
• Kiss on the ears thats means Let's have some fun.
• Kiss on the nose thats means Let's get silly.
• Kiss anywhere else thats means You're the best.

A variation on the cheek kiss is found in Brazil.When ladies meet,they put their cheeks together and kiss the air.Kissing was even more common in ancient times.

The hebrew christian,Greek and Romans kissed a Lot-family,friends and perfect strangers.The romans might have kissed anyone they met on the hand,the cheek or the mouth.

They often put a parfume such as myrrh in their mouth to make kisses more pleasant.Victorian etiquette required a man to kiss the back of a ladies hand.

The interest kisses for we know is knight in olden times for sealing a promise.The lord that give the duty to the knight doing ceremony with kisses mouth(men to men kisses) for seal their promise.This ceremony lasted until the 1500s.

Oh ya,have you everseen a row of XXXXXX at the bottom of a letter,its meaning kisses?That comes from the time of knight and castles too.The X started out as a type of signature.In the middle ages many people couldn't write their names and sign an X on a paper (symboling a cross) and then kiss it to promise that he would stick to the deal.Now an X just means a KISS.

Kisses can also show respect.People kiss religious statues and flags. They have kissed the feet and footprints of kings and queens,as well as their hands,knees and robes.In Ireland, it is believed that you will have good luck if you kiss the Blarney Stone. and African tribes pay homage to their Chief by kissing the ground where he has walked.In roman students kissed their teacher hands,and also in Indonesia.Some times people kiss the ground when they come home to a country they loved.

Reference:

Crossculture understanding Book

http://www.deepestfeelings.com/kiss/kisses_meanings.shtml

Present Progressive Tense

What is Present Progressive Tense /present Continous tense?

The Present Continuous  is mainly used to express the idea that something is happening at the moment of speaking. Another use of the tense is to talk about what we are planning to do

The Fomula :

(+) S +  To Be (am,is,are) + V₁+ing + O + Time Signal

(-) S + To Be (am,is,are ) + not + V₁ +O+Time Signal

(?)To Be(Am,is,are)    + S  +V₁ + O  +  Time Signal ?

We can Use Present Proggresive Tense For :

1. talk about something which is happening at the time of speaking (now, at the moment).
2. talk about something which is happening at present, but not necessarily at the moment of speaking.
3. We can use the Present Continuous when we talk about temporary actions taking place only for a period of time (today, this week, this semester, this year)
4. To express current trends
5. Sometimes we use the Present Continuous to describe a planned action in the near future
6. We can use the Present Continuous when we talk about repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker (always, constantly)

Look at these examples with the main verb Play:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb+Ing	Object	Time signal
+	I, you, we, they	am are are		playing	football	now
	He,she, it	is		playing	football	right now
-	I, you, we, they	am are are	not	playing	football	at the momment
	He, she, it	is	not	playing	football	today
?	am are are	I, you, we, they		playing	football	at 12:30
	is	he, she, it		playing	football	this week

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

	subject	main verb
+	I	am		French.
	You, we, they	are		French.
	He, she, it	is		French.
-	I	am	not	old.
	You, we, they	are	not	old.
	He, she, it	is	not	old.
?	Am	I		late?
	Are	you, we, they		late?
	Is	he, she, it		late?

John drives a taxi.
past	present	future
I am reading Present Continous Tense Topic at The Momment

Look at these examples:

• They are spending this week in Paris.
• The telephone is ringing!
• They are doing their homework.
• We are studying English and Spanish.
• He is always complaining from his colleagues.
• On-line shopping is growing rapidly nowdays.
• I'm leaving for Padang tomorrow morning.

>Simple Present Tense Quiz

1	Are You  eatingeatsbe eaten My chocolate milk?	Click for answereating
2	Randy playingcatchingsharinganything that interesting now	Click for answersharing
3	IsAreAm They playing card today?	Click for answerAre
4	My father  isaream talking with our  neighbour.	Click for answeris
5	Sorry, Lisa amisbe not here at the moment.	Click for answeris
6	IsAreAmhe coming tonight?	Click for answeris
7	Robert isdoesare not go to my school.	Click for answerdoes
8	My parents liveare living liveIn  apartment.	Click for answerare living
9	I'm  diddoingdo are my homework Now	Click for answerdoing
10	She is singsingingsang beatifully	Click for answersinging

Teachers Topic : Life skills Literacy In ESL Teaching

I.Preliminary

You start to learn language from the day you are born. You learn to use language to express your feelings and communicate with others. During early speech and language development, you learn skills that are important to the development of literacy.

II.Defenition Of Literacy

Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read and write. It is a concept claimed and defined by a range of different theoretical fields.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society."

Based on the origin of the word, derived from the word  literacy meaning (Echols and Shadily, 1995: 361). In the Oxford Advanced Learner's dictionary (1989: 728), literacy is mentioned as the ability to read and write. Simply put, Manullang (2009) defines literacy as the ability to read and write (literacy) or the ability to use language to read, write, speak and hear. In government programs, literacy is often translated straight into Calistung program, Read-Write-Count. At least that's the beginning of programs related to literacy, because that is the target is the literacy rate of the Indonesian people. Minimum standards of literacy in Indonesia are able to read, be it Latin letters, and / or Arabic characters.

Sue Watson Said that Life skills in literacy refer to the skills that people require in order to function in everyday and personal life situations. They do not necessarily have to relate to a job but they do need to allow individuals to function with the basic literacy skills that will be needed.

III.Function Of  Literacy

Literacy is a person's ability to read and write. Reading and writing are important to help function in school, on the job, and in societyLiteracy much more than the separate abalities to read and write;rather it is a complex concept of familirity with languange ,but by extention also spoken communication

In school, children with communication disorders are more likely to struggle with literacy skills. They often perform poorly in school, have problems reading, and have difficulty understanding and expressing language.Adults may also have literacy problems. Some adults continue to struggle with reading and writing from childhood. Others have trouble reading and writing after a stroke or brain injury.Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) assess and treat children and adults with communication disorders. SLPs work with teachers and other professionals to help people become effective communicators, problem-solvers, and decision-makers.

However, the question is whether the 'literacy' means simply just can read write and count (calistung)? Comprehensively 'literacy' actually covers identify, understand, translate, create, communicate and process the contents of print materials and writings. Thus evolved the term literacy, literacy was widely interpreted as a person's ability to use written or printed information to develop knowledge, bringing benefits to the community. Kirsch and Jungeblut in Literacy: Profiles of America's Young Adults as quoted Manullang (2009) says that a new can be said literat if he was able to understand something because of reading and doing something based on his reading comprehension.

Literacy can take place in any field, we know of science literacy, mathematics literacy, literacy and information technology, even media literacy. The language literacy is defined as the ability to read and write someone on the minimum level that is used as a means of communication, or language skills a person who at a certain level its ideas can be communicated and understood in a society that is literate, so the person can play a role in the community. Kern (2000) provides definitions of literacy in the academic context of second language education or foreign language as follows, which can be drawn a macro principle is that literacy involves communication:

Literacy is the use of  socially, historically, and culturally situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts. It entails at least a tacit awareness of the relationship between textual conventions and their context of use and ideally, the ability to reflect critically and those relationships. Because it is purpose-sensitive, literacy is dynamic –not static, and variable across within discourse communities and cultures. It draws in a wide range of cognitive abilities, and knowledge of written and spoken language, and knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge.

Therefore not surprising that today's emerging trends in developed countries is to achieve education through skills development discourse (literacy education). Literacy goal is for each citizen is able to communicate (both oral and written) to meet their needs. Thus, English language teaching is also directed to develop language skills that make students life-long independent, creative, and able to solve problems by using the English language skills.

This is actually relevant to the curriculum that we use which clearly established that learning English is intended as an effort of learning the language as a means of communication, namely how students can use language in social interaction, namely as a language of communication. Therefore, the teaching of English language competency is focused on the discourse or text (discourse competence) with the assumption that people create discourse in communicating, both orally and in writing. In other words, the task of language teachers is to develop students' ability to communicate or to exchange the meaning of (Ministry of Education, Philosophical and Theoretical Basis Language Education, 2004). Hence the final agreement could be reached that the teaching of English should be emphasized on the importance of using language in a natural, authentic in order to develop life skills, that is able to serve the needs of students as members of society.

Thus, creating a literate generation as the ultimate goal of teaching in schools has become so urgent, given the fact that the low level of literacy which is closely related to the high school drop-out rates, poverty, and unemployment, the third is an indicator of low human development index (Wagner : 2000 in Manulang: 2009). Literacy is owned by a society seem very decisive mode of community life. Developed countries tend to have a higher standard of literacy than the third world countries. Thus no exaggeration to say for our country achieve a more meaningful level of progress, the government should be extra work to improve literacy standards.

IV.HISTORY OF LITERACY

The history of education has a long past. The first seats of learning were in India, Mesopotamia, Iran, and Egypt and, at later date in Greece. The Nalanda University (India) is one of the oldest universities in the world, where Chinese monk, Xuanzang (aka Hiuen Tsang), came to learn Buddhist Philosophy and Mathematics in 625 AD. Although the history of literacy goes back several thousand years to the invention of writing, what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other times, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular. 

Even earlier, literacy was a trade secret of professional scribes, and many historic monarchies maintained cadres of this profession, sometimes—as was the case for Imperial Aramaic -- even importing them from lands where a completely alien language was spoken and written. Some of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included Ancient Greece and the Islamic Caliphate. In the latter case, the widespread adoption of paper and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions played a fundamental role

V.Implementation Based Learning English Literacy

In implementing the literacy-based English language learning, there are some things that should be underlined. According to Wells (1987) as quoted Alwasilah (2005) there are four levels of literacy according to their respective levels of education are:

• performative level; just able to read and write
• Functional Level; ability to use language for life (skills for survival), such as reading the manual or fill out credit card application. Junior high school English is designed to equip students achieve functional literacy rate this.
• Informational Level; the ability to access knowledge in English. Literacy of high school graduates is expected to reach this level.
• Epistemic level, the ability to transform knowledge in English.

Besides the emphasis on each of these levels, which needs to be underlined also the principle of literacy is a cycle of oral to written. This means that oral communication skills are prerequisites for building written communication skills. Literacy is a series of verbal (class 1 SMP) to writing (grade 3 SMA). But despite the junior high English in oral communication-oriented, students are also introduced to written communications in stages, especially the spoken variety of written language.

Sue Watson  in her site tell the checklist identifies the basic literacy skills that should be taught:

• Personal information including name, address, telephone numbers, age, parents.
• Community signs like, no bikes, out of order, ladies, men, and the symbols often used in public places
• Key words on items - danger, warning, poison etc.
• Key signs, stop, pedestrians only, exit etc.
• Some abbreviations like Dr., Mr and Mrs.
• Filling in forms with the individuals' key information.
• Looking up information like phone numbers and addresses.
• Directionality meanings, up, down, right, left.
• Prescription labels.
• Recipes.
• Basic maps, calendars and directories.
• Common signs in grocery stores.
• Basic laws.
• Basic banking information, how to deposit and withdraw funds and how to write cheques.
• Time - both digital and analogue.

It takes a great deal of time and patience to teach life skills. An overall procedure will look something like:

1. Model the specific concept, what it is and how it's done.
2. Provide an opportunity for the student to try.
3. If the student struggles, provide assistance and reinforce.
4. Provide cues for the student to do the task and continue to reinforce.
5. Repeat the tasks daily until the student is successful, providing cues until the student can do it independently.

To ensure that diversity is not easily forgotten spoken, each teaching unit of discourse or text is organized into four stages and two cycles, so that later learning method is known as the Four Steps Two Cycles model, as quoted from the module Ministry of Education: Philosophical and Theoretical Basis Language Education (2004), also Alwasilah (2005) and Listyani (2007). Model Four Steps Two Cycles is an English language learning model that was developed in order to create learning experiences that depart from oral cycle to write cycle, which in each cycle has four phases. The four stages include: 

1. Building Knowledge of the Text in which the teacher introduces the topic to be studied, cultural context, vocabulary, grammar
2. Modelling of Text is the stage of the introduction of oral or written text to the students, this is the stage displays (exposure) of the text conversation, which he was trained skills is reading, especially short texts such as the food menu in a restaurant, how to turn on the gas stove, how to cook fried rice , and so forth
3. Joint Construction of Text create collaboration antarsiswayang produce a text as a result of cooperation. For example, if in the previous stage the students talk about fried rice, then they learn to make yellow rice recipe, and in the last stage
4. Independent Construction of Text, students are expected to conduct a conversation or a monologue and be able to write text in accordance with the genre being studied, such as how to make fried noodles as his favorite food.

Although largely teaching-learning process is described in four stages, in practice the process is traversed twice. That is, the first cycle focused on oral language and the second cycle focuses on written language.

In general, between Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) and the so-called KBL has the same spirit. Both are intended to build oral and written communication skills. Only, KBL hinted to far more detailed and focused in the description of competencies. Briefly Alwasilah (2005) emphasize how different from the KBK KBL as follows. First, junior high school curriculum explicitly oriented to the development of oral communication competence, while the high school curriculum on the development of written communication competence.

Second, competence berwacana (discourse competence) into central competence while others regarded as supporting competence. Berwacana means producing text that are specific to particular contexts. Therefore, competence dibahasakan very specific by mentioning the act of language (speech act) like how to start a conversation, apologizing, asking for permission, and end the conversation.

Third, the CBC made the theme as a starting point so the pattern is let's talk about something. Instead, make follow-KBL language as point of departure so that the pattern is let's do something with language. With this pattern, the purpose of learning was more active and aggressive.

Fourth, KBL does not include the themes to be displayed in the classroom. What matters is the achievement of competence set forth in the act of language, whereas ajarnya materials can be searched alone. Techniques and methods were also submitted to the teacher. KBL, thus, do not disassemble the pair of the curriculum, but rather enrich our understanding of language competence and help us formulate learning goals and choosing a more specific type of text.

V.Conclusions

Equip students with English language competency in order to participate in modern society is a necessity if charges should not be called. Therefore learning English at school / madrasah should really apply the literacy-based teaching approach, which emphasizes the use of language reasonably and authentically to develop life skills. Such an approach is ideally encourage students' skills in using written or printed information to develop knowledge, bringing benefits to the community.

If the literacy level of our society has increased literat here-which means that someone understands something because reading and doing something based on his reading comprehension, then there will be a lot of positive impact on the life of the nation globally. High school graduates will have more competitiveness, their ability to continue their education as high as more open, their capacity to become part of the solution-and not become part of the problem-will also increase, to be expected there will be a lot more generations are powerless and literat contribute more in the community. 

This is the real education Should Be: generate 'human', and not print the human-shaped machines that can only be explained without being able to create, can only understand the symptoms without being able to solve problems, and perhaps can only achieve a TOEFL score of 500 without being able to communicate with the foreign language.

SOURCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy accesed on 23 april 2011

 http://specialed.about.com/od/teacherchecklists/a/lifeskillslit.htm accesed on 23 april 2011

http://agustinadjihadi.blogspot.com/2010/07/menjawab-kritik-gagalnya-pengajaran.html accesed on 23 april 2011

______________. Kurikulum Bahasa Inggris 2004,

Depdiknas______________. Landasan Filosofis-Teoritis

Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,Depdiknas, 2004Alwasilah, A. Chaedar. 2005. Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi.
www.pikiranrakyat.com. Diakses pada 8 Pebruari 2010.Artsiyanti, Diba. 2002. Bagaimana Meningkatkan Mutu Hasil Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris di Sekolah. Diakses pada 16 Maret 2010.Celce-Murcia, Z. Dornyei, S. Thurrel. 1995. Communicative Competence: aPedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications. Issues inApplied Linguistics, 6/2.

Djiwandono, Patrisius Istiarto. 2009. Upaya Bangsa Mempelajari Bahasa Asing:Sejauh Mana dan Mau Kemana? Linguistik Indonesia. Tahun ke-27 Nomor 1. Jakarta: Masyarakat Linguistik Indonesia.

Echols, John M dan Hasan Shadily. 1995. Kamus Inggris-Indonesia. Jakarta:Gramedia.

Furchan, Arief. 2009. Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di Lembaga Pendidikan Islam di Millenium III. Www.Pendidikanislam.Net/Index.Php/Makalah/41-Makalah-Tertulis/265-Pembelajaran-Bahasa-Inggris-Bernyansa-Islam-Memasuki-Millenium-Iii. Diakses pada 16 Maret 2010.Oxford Advanced Learner’s. 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kern, R. 2000. Literacy and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Manulang, Marihot. 2009. Dari Membaca Menuju Generasi yang Literat.www.mhariansib.com. Diakses pada 8 Pebruari 2010.

Media Indonesia. Edisi 6 Nopember 2000. Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris Gagal Total.Pidarta, Made. 2007. Landasan Kependidikan, Stimulus Ilmu PendidikanBercorak Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.

Riza, Faisol. 2006. Kegagalan UAN dalam Reformasi Pendidikan. Edisi 540/14.Sukmadinata, Nana Syaodih. 2002. Pengembangan Kurikulum: Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.

Sumintono, Bambang. 2009. Pembelajaran Lanjutan dengan Teori Konstruktivis.http://netsains.com/2009/02/pembelajaran-lanjutan-dengan-teori-konstruktivis. Diakses pada 5 Mei 2010.

Widiyanto, Kelik Nursetiyo. 2008. Pendidikan Liberal; Alternatif PendidikanNasional. Http://Maskelik.Multiply.Com/Journal/Item/19/Pendidikan_Liberal_Alternatif_Pen

History Development of ELT syllabus In Indonesia

INTRODUCTION

Many critiques correspond to government due to curriculum change over minister replacement , December 30, 2004, retrieved at April 8, 2009).Curriculum, in school context “referring to the whole body of knowledge that children acquire in school” (Richard 2001:39), is influenced by the development of paradigm of philosophy (Zais 1976), needs and situational analysis (Richard 2001) and also ‘Global Mega trend’ (Pezzoli & Howe 2001). Therefore the changing of curriculum, followed by the development of syllabus as of means selecting, organizing, assessing content (Brown cited by Sundayana 2004) and goal of curriculum activities in the classroom context (Huda, 1999) holds crucial issues in our education.


This writing is chapter report from a book entitled “Language Learning and Teaching” written by Nuril Huda in 1999. This report discusses the development of English language Teaching Syllabus in Indonesia from 1984 up to 2006. This is divided into four sections. The first will discuss syllabus of 1984 curriculum. The second section will introduce some discussion of syllabus of 1994 curriculum. The next section will be shown syllabus of Competence based curriculum (2004) and finally the latest curriculum – School based curriculum –will be discussed.

The 1984 English Language Teaching (ELT) Syllabus

The 1984 curriculum is based on the amendment of 1975 curriculum (Kasihani cited by Emilia 2005). The education is ruled in UUPP (Undang-Undang Pendidikan dan Pengajaran) No. 4, 1950. The goal of education is membentuk manusia susila jang tjakap dan warga Negara jang demokratis serta bertanggung-djawab tentang kesedjahteraan masyarakat dan tanah air (Chapter II, article 3). As the situational needs, in Pidato Kenegaraan at August 16, 1984 the president of Indonesia address the goal of education development in Repelita III is to improve quality of education, learning opportunity, relevance of education and development, efficiency and effectively of management of education by training and curriculum improvement for fulfilling development skillful labor (Repelita III Chapter XVII). Therefore, due to the needs and situational analysis, the changing of curriculum is necessary.

Although English is placed as the foreign language in Indonesia, the competency of learner in this subject is very important to overcome the national development goal. So, the 1984 English syllabus intends to build the ability of learner in communicating, well-known by Communicative approach/communicative language teaching (Huda 1999: 118).

Communicative approach (CA) was very popular in 1960s-1979s. It assumes that if the students are involved in meaning focused communicative task, then ‘language learning will take care of itself’ (Allwright 1979) (Harmer 2007: 69). The goal of CA is communicative competence in which instruction needs to be aimed in organizational, pragmatic and strategic competence (Azies & Alwasilah 2000; www.onlineenglish.net). Moreover Richard argued that communicative competence referred to “the capacity to use language appropriately in communication based on the setting, the roles of the participants, and the nature of transaction” (2001:36). In other words, grammar and the use of language hold important aspects in promoting communication.

Syllabus as aims to simplify and rationalize the curriculum (Richard, 2001: 42) influences the selecting of material and the method used in classroom. Huda (1999:118) summarizes the components of 1984 English syllabus as structure, reading, vocabulary, dialogues, writing, song and game (SMP), and spelling, pronunciation and poem (SMU). Here the structure, as mention earlier, still is placed as important aspect to be able to communicative well.

The content of the book shows that the syllabus design is structural syllabus which main focus is structure (Krahne and Richard). A major characteristic of structural syllabus is “synthetic” (Wilkins, 1976; Yalden 1983 cited by Krahne 1987:16) that derives from assumption that learner can synthesize the material from analyzing rule and patterns to construct information. Reading a text is assigned as the context of the use of grammatical rule.

However, Krahnke states that the structural syllabus usually associated with Grammar traditional method (GTM), audioligualism and silent way (1987: 17; see also Celci-Murcia 1991), whereas CA usually used the notional/functional syllabus (Krahne 1987: 29, Richard 37; Dubin and Olshtain, 1986). Obviously it demonstrates contradiction between philosophical principle perceived by government and text book used by teachers in class.

The 1994 English Syllabus

The 1994 English syllabus emerged as the approval of UU Sistem Pendidikan Nasional No. 2, 1989. The goal of national education is to develop mentality of nation which is imbued with, faith, moral, science and skill, and also to increase responsibility as nation (chapter II, article 4). In addition, in chapter IX, article 37 states that curriculum development in every school level is based the development of learner and situational needs, national development, and development of science, technology and art. Therefore for the need of globalization and 21st century, the goal of ELT addresses to the development of communicative competence in English, including reading, listening, speaking and writing skill simultaneously by mastering 1,000 words for Lower secondary level and 2,500 words for higher secondary level (Depdikbud 1993; Huda 1999: 119).

The approach of teaching is communicative/meaningful approach which is broader than previous syllabus (see Depdikbud 1993; Huda 1990; Suplemen GBPP 1994, 2000; Kasinhani cited by Emilia 2005). Reading, as mention earlier in the goal, and mastering vocabulary still hold important skill to communicate (Huda’s survey at 1990). Reading is represented in some themes. Theme is the context of communication (Suplemen 1994, 2000) not as material which is learned by students. Grammatical rule is used and presented to express meaning and functional skills (Depdikbud 1993; Suplemen 1994, 2000). Learning process is focused on learner-centered orientation (Depdikbud 1993; Ernawan & Hardjomarso, 1996).

The example shows that the first column is TPU (learning objective). Richard called syllabus by emphasizing “the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes” is called competence- based syllabus (159). Moreover, Ernawan & Hardjomarso called it “Thematic” syllabus (1996). Krahnke and Richard called thematic syllabus as topical/content based-syllabus (See Krahne 1987:66, Richard 2001; 157). However, the 1994 ELT syllabus is as integration of functional, situational, skill and structural (Suplemen 1994, 2000). In other words “Variable focus design”, which emphasizes to gradual change of focus of organizing principle, affects the design of syllabus (Huda, 1999: 123). However, this ELT regards fails to overcome the national goal, particularly to respect multicultural values (Lie, 2000). Hence, the improvement of our ELT syllabus is indeed needed.

The 2004 ELT Syllabus

The 2004 ELT Syllabus emerges after a year of launching of Undang-Undang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (UU. SISDIKNAS) No. 20, 2003. The aim of national education is to develop learners’ potentials so that they become persons imbued with human values who are faithful and possess morals and noble character; healthy, knowledgeable, competent, creative, independent; and as citizens, are democratic and responsible (Chapter II, Article 3). Moreover, in chapter II, article 3 states that the development of curriculum is influenced by the development of paradigm of philosophy, learning and language theory. The emerging of post-structural paradigm in philosophy movement influences the theory of how language is learnt and taught which views learning language as medium to deconstruct social life (Connole, Smith & Wiseman 1993; Alawasilah 2008).

Government underlines some characteristics of this curriculum. The first characteristic is based on “competence” of Celce-Murcia, Dornyei dan Thurrell (1995) in which consists of discourse competence supported by linguistic competence, actional, socio-cultural competence and strategic competence. The second is the systemic functional linguistics (SFL) of Halliday (1978) which has ideational, interpersonal and textual function including text, co-text and context. The third is ‘level of competence’ (Wells 1987) whereas the junior higher learner intends to reach functional level; in other hand, senior high learner intends to reach informational level. The last is the development of language competence from spoken to written language. The goal of ELT for SMP focuses on written spoken language that written  with simple sentences such as in descriptive, narrative, spoof/recount, procedure, report, and anecdote. However, it, in SMU, focuses on written language based on more advance genre type such as descriptive, narrative, spoof/recount, procedure, report, news item, anecdote, exposition explanation, discussion, commentary, and review.

The syllabus is skill-based (Krahnke, 1987: 50) in more traditional way of viewing is called competence-based instruction (Richard 2001: 159; Krahnke, 1987: 50) in which competence is viewed as similar as “behavioral objectives defined as what a learner is able to do as a result instruction” (Krahnke 1987:50).

Principles of developing the 2004 competence-based syllabus are scientific based, learner’s needs, systematic, relevant, consistent and adequate (Dekdasmen 2004:11). Furthermore, there are six steps of developing this syllabus:

(1) writing subject identity,
(2) formulating standard competence,
(3) deciding basic competence,
(4) deciding material and its explanation,
(5) deciding learning strategy, and
(6) deciding time allocation and resources (Dikdasmen 2004: 25).

However, this curriculum is no longer used. In 2006, government launched School -based curriculum (KTSP). For some instances, KTSP is the development of the 2004 curriculum.

The 2006 ELT / Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) Syllabus

The spirit of decentralization, as showed by Act of local Autonomy No. 22, 1999 revised by Act of Local Autonomy No. 32, 2004 and hand in hand with Act No. 20, 2003, is seen in the 2006 curriculum. In this regard, education is not merely central government’s responsibility; local government also has responsibility in managing and funding education. Therefore, kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) is developed from Standard of content by schools based on their context and potential.

Although KTSP varies between one and other schools, Government gives some regulations stated in Governmental Regulation (PP) No. 19, 2005 concerning National Standard of Education (SNP) at May 16, 2005. It consists of: standard of content, standard competence of graduate, standard of process, standard of educator and administrator, standard of medium and infrastructure, standard of funding, and standard of assessment. Furthermore, all standards are ruled by PERMENDIKNAS.

English, as stated in standard of content (PERMENDIKNAS No. 22, 2006), is learned at elementary two hours in a week (as Mulok for class IV, V and VI), at junior and senior high school four hours in a week except for language program in SMU – five hours in a week. Moreover, the standard competence of graduate of English (PERMEN No. 23, 2006) for each level is communicative competence in the form of spoken of language accompanying action for elementary school, in the form of spoken and written for achieving functional literacy level for junior high school and in the form of spoken and written for achieving informational literacy level for senior high school.

From the goal and scope above, we can see that every school level is simultaneously ‘variable focus design’ which emphasizes to gradual change (Huda, 1999).

The syllabus, in this curriculum, perceived as the plan of learning process with lesson plan- RPP (PP No. 19, 2005, chapter IV, article 20; PERMEN No. 41, 2007) which consists of standard of competence, basic standard, material, learning activities, learning indicators, assessment, time allocation and resources (PP No. 19, 2005, Chapter IV, article 20; Depdiknas, 2006; PERMEN No. 41, 2007). The syllabus is developed by a teacher or group teacher supervised by department of education based on standard of content, standard competence of graduate and guiding of arrangement of school-based curriculum (Appendix of PERMEN No. 41, 2007).

Furthermore, principles of developing syllabus are scientific, relevance, systematic, consistence, adequate, actual, contextual, flexible and comprehensive (Depdiknas, 2006). Moreover, the steps of development are as follow:

(1) investigating and deciding Standard of competence,
(2) investigating and deciding basic competence,
(3) identifying main topic/material,
(4) developing learning activity, 
(5) formulating indicators,  
(6) deciding kind of assessment,  
(7) deciding time allocation, and  
(8) deciding resources (Appendix of PERMEN No. 41, 2007).

Basically, the 2006 syllabus is as similar with the 2004 ELT syllabus. The difference is in deciding in indicators, theme and in teaching approach. The 2006 does not focus on theme and indicators are decided based on the necessity of learner’s need and ability. Moreover, the 2006 emphasizes on learning process as highlight in lesson plan and as mentioned in PP No. 19, 2005, Chapter IV, article 19, verses 1 “learning process is performed interactive, inspirable, fun, challenging, motivating learners to involve actively, and given adequate space for initiative, creativity, autonomy based on learners’ potential, interest, psychical and psychological development” however, 2004 which greatly influenced with Systemic functional Linguistics of Halliday (1987).

CONCLUSION

The syllabus in language teaching and learning indeed depends on how the organization of content (Krahnke 1987: 1). It can be a table of content or the essence of the course (Parker & Harris 2002; http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm). However, some syllabus design relates to language teaching approach; structural syllabus originates GTM, notional and functional syllabus emerges as supporting of CLT and situational syllabus relates to the notion of ESP, but not all (Krahnke 1987). Krahnke mentions skill/competence based, content-based and integrated- based syllabi do not relate to any kind of language approach (1987:50). Rather it is influenced by; “

(1) goal and objective of the overall instructional program,
(2) Instructional resources available,
(3) teachers factors, and
(4) students factors” (Sundayana, 2004).

However, the development of ELT syllabus in Indonesia from structural-based (The 1984 syllabus), Thematic-based (The 1994 syllabus), to competence/skill – based (The 2004 and 2006 syllabus) is not followed by the changing of approaching used by teacher in classroom. Teachers tend to teach more grammar and structure separately and explicitly out of their communicative competence (As Hikam as cited by Emilia 2005). Teachers’ habitual and their previous experiences influence the way of their teaching. Therefore, the government’s policy to certify teacher is very crucial in developing ELT syllabus and further for ‘providing effective teaching’ as part of curriculum development (Richards, 2001).

This Article Only for My reading source for My Lecturer Subject.This Article Was I copied from http://englisah.wordpress.com.Thanks a Lot for the writer that give me Permission for copied this research.This Article Not mine,but If you wanna read it and you wanna share It,you can beg the permission from the real Author,not me.I copied this research without changed anything as my collection for my college graduate,only for my resource.^_^

Bibliography

Alwasilah, A. C. (2008). Mengapa Filsafat? In A. C. Alwasilah, Filsafat Bahasa dan Pendidikan (pp. 6-22). Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya.

Azies, F., & Alwasilah, A. C. (2000). Pengajaran Bahasa Komunikatif: Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya.

BSNP. (2007). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia No. 41 Tahun 2007 Tentang Standar Proses. Jakarta: Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan.

Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language Teaching Approaches : An Overview. In M. Celce-Murcia, Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp. 3-10). Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle Publisher.

Communicative approach . (n.d.). Retrieved from www.onlineenglish.net

Connole, H., Smith, B., & Wiseman, R. (1993). Research Methodology 1: Issues and Method in Research. Victoria: Deakin University.

Curriculum Theory and Practice. (n.d.). Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Conference: Informal Education with a Formal Setting: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm

Depdiknas. (2005). Peraturan Pemerintah No. 19 Tahun 2005 Tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Jakarta: Depdiknas.

Dikdasmen. (2004). Pedoman Umum Pengembangan Silabus Berbasis Kompetensi Siswa SMP. Jakarta: Depdiknas.

Dikdasmen. (2000). Penyempurnaan/Penyesuaian Kurikulum 1994 SLTP (Suplemen GBBP). Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.

Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course Design. New York: Cambridge University Press.

 Elis Aisah,Eneng.2009,http://englisah.wordpress.com/2009/05/11/development-of-english-language-teaching-syllabus-in-indonesia/

Emilia, E. (2005). A Critical Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Academic Writing in a Tertiary EFL Context in Indonesia . Melbourne: Unfublished Thesis.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Learning. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited 2007.

Huda, N. (1999). Language Learning and Teaching. Malang: IKIP Malang Publisher.

Idi, A. (1999). Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktik. Jakarta: Gaya Media Pratama.

Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Lie, A. (2000). The Multicultural Curriculum: Education for Peace and Development. The 35th Southest Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Language Centre (SEAMELO RELC) Conference. Singapura, 17-19 April 2000: SEAMEO Jasper Monograph Series.

Lye, J. (2008, April 20). Retrieved February 20, 2009, from Brock University: http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/poststruct.php

Parker, J., & Harris, M. B. (2002). The Purposes of a Syllabus. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from http://coe.nau.edu/part_time_fr/syllabus_cline_article_2.pdf

Pezzoli, K., & Howe, D. (2001). Planning Pedagogy and Globalization. Journal of Planning Education and research , 365-375.

Retmono. (2004, December 30). Suara Merdeka online. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0412/30/nas09.htm

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sundayana, W. (2004). Syllabus Design in the Frame of Competence-Based Curriculum English. Competence- Based Teaching in Action. Bandung: HIMA Bahasa Inggris UPI Bandung.

Thwaites, T., Davis, L., & Mules, W. (1994). Tools for Cultural Studies. South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia, Ltd.

Wachidah, S. (2004). Introduction to Competence-Based Teaching in Action. Naional Seminar: Competence-Based Teaching in Action (pp. -). Bandung: HIMA Bahasa Inggris UPI Bandung.

Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum Principles and Foundation. New York: Harper and Row, Inc. .

Appreciate Narrative prose

According to Webster's Online Dictionary, narrative is defined as "something that is narrated : STORY." Examples of narratives can include stories such as: fairy tales, fables, short stories, fantasy,legend, mystery, science fiction, biographies and autobiographies to name a few. All stories have a beginning, a middle and an end.

There are other parts of stories that children should learn to identify, such as: characters, settings, themes, a problem or conflict, a sequence of events and a resolution(comprehension instruction). I am sure if you think of all the fairy tales you know you can identify each of these parts. The important thing about this is you can learn to predict what could happen as you learn the structure.


Narrative prose or storytelling involves both reading and writing, but it is often forgotten that neither of these are necessary for storytelling. Since ancient times, pictures and oral renditions of stories have been used to tell stories. (Wikipedia Storytelling)

Vitz (1990) claims that narratives are a function in a person’s moral development. Vitz goes on to back this claim with the thoughts of several other psychologists. Some moral issues than can be addressed through narrative include empathy, caring and commitment, and personal character. Vitz (1990) feels moral education effects aspects in education and the society at large.

Bruner according to Vitz (1990), feels narrative thinking comes from actual and interrelated situations that show the validity of their moral thinking. Narratives tell about, the actions, intentions, outcomes, and personal experiences of people. Sarbin, a social psychologist, feels narratives explains the reasons behind human behavior (Vitz, 1990) Sarbin, according to Vitz (1990), believes our moral choices are developed by our internal self-narratives. Cole, according to Vitz (1990), think children understand their moral behavior through a narrative context and their moral behavior is deeply affected by narrative experience.

Vitz (1990) concludes narratives should be used to model the principles and general actions of moralities. Vitz (1990) acknowledge there will always be different views on what morality, but tolerating other views may eventually allow psychology to reach the ultimate form of moral knowledge: wisdom.

I.How To Read Narrative Prose ?

When you read a Narrative Prose ,you should observe three important rules :

1. Read the passage carefully so that you really understand it without worrying over the meaning of a few difficult words.
2. While reading the passage,pay close attention to the sequence of events described or to the stages which lead up to the main event
3. See if the writer gives reasons why the event or events described occured

II.Finding The Meaning

When You have Read a Narrative-prose passage carefully,you should be in a position to write down what you think it means.As in poetry,you should give a general meaning,a detailed meaning,and be able to define the intentions of the writer.

1.General Meaning.This should be based on a reading of the whole passage.You should outline the main event described in a single sentence

2.Detailed Meaning,You should not write a precis of the passage.On the other hand, you account must be accurate and you must not omit essential information.The best way to tackle the detailed meaning is to divide the passage up into what you consider to be its main stages,and then to give a brief account of each stage in a single paragraph.What you have in effect to do is to recount the essential parts of the story in your own words

3.Intention,A great deal of narrative often does much more than just "tell a story".Sometimes there is a deeper meaning behind the story

III.Kind Of narrative Prose :

~FAIRY TALE'S~

Fairy Tale, is a type of short narrative that typically features such folkloric characters, such as fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, dwarves, giants or gnomes, and usually magic or enchantments. However, only a small number of the stories thus designated explicitly refer to fairies. The stories may nonetheless be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables.examples:Snow white and seven dwarfs,the light princess,The Golden Keys,Beauty and the Beast etc

~FABLE'S~

Fable is a succinct story, in prose or verse, that features animals, mythical creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are anthropomorphized (given human qualities), and that illustrates a moral lesson (a "moral"), which may at the end be expressed explicitly in a pithy maxim.A fable differs from a parable in that the latter excludes animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech and other powers of humankind.Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the King James Version of the New Testament, "μύθος" ("mythos") was rendered by the translators as "fable" in First and Second Timothy, in Titus and in First Peter.examples : George Orwell Animal Farm,The Ant and the Cicade,The Deer and The Crocs,etc

~SHORT STORIES~

A Short Story is a work of fiction that is usually written in prose, often in narrative format. This format tends to be more pointed than longer works of fiction, such as novellas (in the 20th and 21st century sense) and novels. Short story definitions based upon length differ somewhat even among professional writers, somewhat in part because of the fragmentation of the medium into genres. Since the short story format includes a wide range of genres and styles, the actual length is determined by the individual author's preference (or the story's actual needs in terms of creative trajectory or story arc) and the submission guidelines relevant to the story's actual market. Guidelines vary greatly among publishers.

Short stories have their face in oral story-telling traditions and the prose anecdote, a swiftly sketched situation that quickly comes to its point. With the rise of the comparatively realistic novel, the short story evolved as a miniature version, with some of its first perfectly independent examples in the tales of E.T.A. Hoffmann. Other 19th-century writers well known for their short stories include Nikolai Gogol, Guy de Maupassant, and Bolesław Prus. Some authors are known almost entirely for their short stories, either by choice (they wrote nothing else) or by critical regard (short-story writing is thought of as a challenging art). An example is Jorge Luis Borges, who won American fame with "The Garden of Forking Paths", published in the August 1948 Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. Another example is O. Henry (author of "Gift of the Magi"), for whom the O. Henry Award is named. American examples include Flannery O'Connor, John Cheever, and Raymond Carver.

Authors such as Charles Dickens, Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., Nathaniel Hawthorne, Virginia Woolf, Bolesław Prus, Rudyard Kipling, William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, James Joyce, P.G. Wodehouse, H.P. Lovecraft and Ernest Hemingway were highly accomplished writers of both short stories and novels.

~FANTASY~

Fantasy is a genre of fiction that uses magic and other supernatural phenomena as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. Many works within the genre take place in fictional worlds where magic is common. Fantasy is generally distinguished from science fiction and horror by the expectation that it steers clear of (pseudo-)scientific and macabre themes, respectively, though there is a great deal of overlap between the three (which are subgenres of speculative fiction).

In popular culture, the genre of fantasy is dominated by its medievalist form, especially since the worldwide success of The Lord of the Rings books by J. R. R. Tolkien. In its broadest sense however, fantasy comprises works by many writers, artists, filmmakers, and musicians, from ancient myths and legends to many recent works embraced by a wide audience today.

Fantasy is a vibrant area of academic study in a number of disciplines (English, cultural studies, comparative literature, history, medieval studies). Work in this area ranges widely, from the structuralist theory of Tzvetan Todorov, which emphasizes the fantastic as a liminal space, to work on the connections (political, historical, literary) between medievalism and popular culture.

~MYSTERY~

Mystery fiction is a loosely-defined term that is often used as a synonym for detective fiction or crime fiction— in other words a Italic textnovel or short story in which a detective (either professional or amateur) investigates and solves a crime. Sometimes mystery books are nonfiction. The term "mystery fiction" may sometimes be limited to the subset of detective stories in which the emphasis is on the puzzle element and its logical solution (cf. whodunit), as a contrast to hardboiled detective stories, which focus on action and gritty realism. However, in more general usage "mystery" may be used to describe any form of crime scene fiction, even if there is no mystery to be solved.

Although normally associated with the crime genre, the term "mystery fiction" may in certain situations refer to a completely different genre, where the focus is on supernatural mystery (even if no crime is involved). This usage was common in the pulp magazines of the 1930s and 1940s, where titles such as Dime Mystery, Thrilling Mystery and Spicy Mystery offered what at the time were described as "weird menace" stories – supernatural horror in the vein of Grand Guignol. This contrasted with parallel titles of the same names which contained conventional hardboiled crime fiction. The first use of "mystery" in this sense was by Dime Mystery, which started out as an ordinary crime fiction magazine but switched to "weird menace" during the latter part of 1933.

~LEGEND'S~

A legend (Latin, legenda, "things to be read") is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. Legend, for its active and passive participants includes no happenings that are outside the realm of "possibility", defined by a highly flexible set of parameters, which may include miracles that are perceived as actually having happened, within the specific tradition of indoctrination where the legend arises, and within which it may be transformed over time, in order to keep it fresh and vital, and realistic.

The word "legend" appeared in the English language circa 1340, transmitted from mediaeval Latin language through French. Its blurred extended (and essentially Protestant) sense of a non-historical narrative or myth was first recorded in 1613. By emphasizing the unrealistic character of "legends" of the saints, English-speaking Protestants were able to introduce a note of contrast to the "real" saints and martyrs of the Reformation, whose authentic narratives, they were sure, could be found in Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Thus "legend" gained its modern connotations of "undocumented" and "spurious". Before the invention of the printing press, stories were passed on via oral tradition. Storytellers learned their stock in trade: their stories, typically received from an older storyteller, who might, though more likely not, have claimed to have actually known a witness, rendered the narrative as "history". Legend is distinguished from the genre of chronicle by the fact that legends apply structures that reveal a moral definition to events, providing meaning that lifts them above the repetitions and constraints of average human lives and giving them a universality that makes them worth repeating through many generations. In German-speaking and northern European countries, "legend", which involves Christian origins, is distinguished from "Saga", being from any other (usually, but not necessarily older) origin.

~SCIENCE FICTION'S~

Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with the impact of imagined innovations in science or technology, often in a futuristic setting. Exploring the consequences of such innovations is the traditional purpose of science fiction, making it a "literature of ideas".Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possibilities. It is similar to, but differs from fantasy in that, within the context of the story, its imaginary elements are largely possible within scientifically established or scientifically postulated laws of nature (though some elements in a story might still be pure imaginative speculation).

The settings for science fiction are often contrary to known reality but the majority of science fiction relies on a considerable degree of suspension of disbelief, which is facilitated in the reader's mind by potential scientific explanations or solutions to various fictional elements. These may include:

• A setting in the future, in alternative timelines, or in an historical past that contradicts known facts of history or the archaeological record
• A setting in outer space, on other worlds, or involving aliens 
• Stories that involve technology or scientific principles that contradict known laws of natures
• Stories that involve discovery or application of new scientific principles, such as time travel or psionics, or new technology, such as nanotechnology, faster-than-light travel or robots, or of new and different political or social systems (e.g., a dystopia, or a situation where organized society has collapsed)

~BIOGRAPHY~

A biography is a detailed description or account of someone's life. A biography is more than a list of impersonal facts (education, work, relationships, and death), it also portrays the subject's experience of those events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents the subject's story, highlighting various aspects of his or her life, including intimate details of experiences, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality.An autobiography is written by the subject himself.

A work is biographical if it covers all of a person's life. As such, biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Together, all biographical works form the genre known as biography, in literature, film, and other forms of media.The Early Middle Ages (AD 400 to 1450) saw a decline in awareness of classical culture in Europe. During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of early history in Europe was the Roman Catholic Church. Hermits, monks and priests used this historic period to write the first modern biographies. Their subjects were usually restricted to church fathers, martyrs, popes and saints. Their works were meant to be inspirational to people, vehicles for conversion to Christianity. See hagiography. One significant example of biography from this period which does not exactly fit into that mold is the life of Charlemagne as written by his courtier Einhard.

~AUTOBIOGRAPHY~

An autobiography (from the Greek, αὐτός-autos self + βίος-bios life + γράφειν-graphein to write) is a book about the life of a person, written by that person.The word autobiography was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical the Monthly Review, when he suggested the word as a hybrid but condemned it as 'pedantic'; but its next recorded use was in its present sense by Robert Southey in 1809.[1] The form of autobiography however goes back to antiquity. Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography, however, may be based entirely on the writer's memory. Closely associated with autobiography (and sometimes difficult to precisely distinguish from it) is the form of memoir.

IV.Structural Devices

1. Unity.When considering Unity,you should show how a piece of Narrative prose has been put together,but you must take very great care not to repeat yor account of detailed meaning.You should observe how everything that happens in the story contributes to the main event,pointing out anything you consider to be irrelevant.
2. Contrast,the placing of opposite pictures side by side is very often used to balance a Narrative and keep the reader simultaneously interested in two way things at once.Two situation run parralel until they finally meet;the point at which they meet is often a climax in the story
3. Descriptions.Its virtually impossible to have without description for its by this means that an author sets his scenes and gives his reader his reader a sense of time and place.At the same tim,in good narrative there is never description for its own sake.It always adds something to the story and directly  or indirectly influences the course of events
4. Dialogue A writer helps his characters to come alive not only describing thew way they act but by letting us hear them speak effective dialogue enables the reader to feel that he is actually witnessing what is going on

V.Sense Devices

Style:When we speak a Writer's style,we mean the way he handles all devices generally.Style is quality that makes one piece of wriiting different from another and is thus one of the most important characteristics of prose.A writer must take very great care to adapt his style of writing to his subject-matter

Use Of words,Metaphor,Simile.The way an Author handles words not only giveshis style of writing a definite quality but adds colour to his narrative and enables the reader to imagine more readily what is happening

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Source:

http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Narrative_prose

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale#Literary

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_fiction

Oktarina,Yeni.2011.Hand out Prose Appreciation.Baturaja :University Of baturaja

.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------